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Kidney stones are a common disorder, with an annual incidence of eight cases per 1,000 adults. During an episode of renal colic, the first priority is to rule out conditions requiring immediate referral to an emergency department, then to alleviate pain, preferably with a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug.

The diagnostic workup consists of urinalysis, urine culture, and imaging to confirm the diagnosis and assess for conditions requiring active stone removal, such as urinary infection or a stone larger than 10 mm.

Conservative management consists of pain control, medical expulsive therapy with an alpha blocker, and follow-up imaging within 14 days to monitor stone position and assess for hydronephrosis. Asymptomatic kidney stones should be followed with serial imaging, and should be removed in case of growth, symptoms, urinary obstruction, recurrent infections, or lack of access to health care. All patients with kidney stones should be screened for risk of stone recurrence with medical history, basic laboratory evaluation, and imaging.

Lifestyle modifications such as increased fluid intake should be recommended for all patients, and thiazide diuretics, allopurinol, or citrates should be prescribed for patients with recurrent calcium stones. Patients at high risk of stone recurrence should be referred for additional metabolic assessment, which can serve as a basis for tailored preventive measures.

Varicose veins are twisted and bulgy veins that protrude on the surface of the skin. Spider veins are similar, but less obvious. These blue and red tattoo like lines on the skin, as well as the varicose veins are commonly found in the legs and occur primarily due to enlarged and weakened vein walls and faulty valves.

This leads to a painful and problematic condition that sometimes necessitates spider/varicose vein treatment. Vascular defects and poor blood circulation are also important reasons for these vein disorders.

Apart from vascular defects, some of the other causes for varicose/spider veins are heredity, obesity, prolonged standing, and lifestyle changes.

These are typical reasons requiring varicose vein treatment, of the upwardly mobile residing in metros like Mumbai or Delhi who spend a lot of standing hours commuting, added to a fast paced life, and no time for exercises.

The treatment of cancer has undergone evolutionary changes as understanding of the underlying biological processes has increased. Tumor removal surgeries have been documented in ancient Egypt, hormone therapy and radiation therapy were developed in the late 19th century.

Chemotherapy, immunotherapy and newer targeted therapies are products of the 20th century. As new information about the biology of cancer emerges, treatments will be developed and modified to increase effectiveness, precision, survivability, and quality of life.

In theory, non-hematological cancers can be cured if entirely removed by surgery, but this is not always possible. When the cancer has metastasized to other sites in the body prior to surgery, complete surgical excision is usually impossible.

In the Halstedian model of cancer progression, tumors grow locally, then spread to the lymph nodes, then to the rest of the body. This has given rise to the popularity of local-only treatments such as surgery for small cancers. Even small localized tumors are increasingly recognized as possessing metastatic potential.

Examples of surgical procedures for cancer include mastectomy for breast cancer, prostatectomy for prostate cancer, and lung cancer surgery for non-small cell lung cancer. The goal of the surgery can be either the removal of only the tumor, or the entire organ.

Heart bypass surgery, or coronary artery bypass graft (CABG) surgery, is used to improve blood flow to your heart. A surgeon uses blood vessels taken from another area of your body to bypass the damaged arteries.

This surgery is done when coronary arteries become blocked or damaged. These arteries supply your heart with oxygenated blood. If these arteries are blocked or blood flow is restricted, the heart doesn’t work properly. This can lead to heart failure.

Valvular heart disease is a form of heart disease that occurs when one or more of the heart’s four valves don’t function properly. Valve replacement surgery may be an option if the valves of your heart are too fragile, scarred, or otherwise damaged to repair.

The valves of the heart are responsible for allowing nutrient-rich blood to flow through the chambers of your heart. Each valve is supposed to close completely after ushering in blood flow. Diseased heart valves aren’t always able to perform the job as well as they should.

Heart valve repair is also a solution for valvular heart disease. In some people, the damage is too far advanced and a total replacement of the affected valve is the only option.

Laparoscopy is an operation performed in the abdomen or pelvis using small incisions (usually 0.5–1.5 cm) with the aid of a camera. The laparoscope aids diagnosis or therapeutic interventions with a few small cuts in the abdomen.

Laparoscopic surgery, also called minimally invasive surgery (MIS), bandaid surgery, or keyhole surgery, is a modern surgical technique. There are a number of advantages to the patient with laparoscopic surgery versus an exploratory laparotomy. These include reduced pain due to smaller incisions, reduced hemorrhaging, and shorter recovery time. The key element is the use of a laparoscope, a long fiber optic cable system that allows viewing of the affected area by snaking the cable from a more distant, but more easily accessible location.

Laparoscopic surgery includes operations within the abdominal or pelvic cavities, whereas keyhole surgery performed on the thoracic or chest cavity is called thoracoscopic surgery. Specific surgical instruments used in laparoscopic surgery include obstetrical forceps, scissors, probes, dissectors, hooks, and retractors. Laparoscopic and thoracoscopic surgery belong to the broader field of endoscopy. The first laparoscopic procedure was performed by German surgeon Georg Kelling in 1901.

Piles are inflamed and swollen collections of tissue in the anal area. They can have a range of sizes, and they may be internal or external. Internal piles are normally located between 2 and 4 centimeters (cm) above the opening of the anus, and they are the more common type. External piles occur on the outside edge of the anus.

External piles form small lumps on the outside edge of the anus. They are very itchy and can become painful if a blood clot develops, as the blood clot can block the flow of blood. Thrombosed external piles, or hemorrhoids that have clotted, require immediate medical treatment.

Orthopaedic surgery or orthopaedics, is the branch of surgery concerned with conditions involving the musculoskeletal system. Orthopaedic surgeons use both surgical and nonsurgical means to treat musculoskeletal trauma, spine diseases, sports injuries, degenerative diseases, infections, tumors, and congenital disorders.

Orthopedics (also commonly spelled Orthopaedics). It’s a big word and even bigger medical specialty.

Many people are unsure when or if they need an orthopedic surgeon – and where to find one when they do. Some patients even shy away from orthopedic surgeons, worried that a surgeon might be eager to put them “under the knife.”

“Orthopaedics is key to managing and treating bone and joint pain, which most of us will experience in our lifetimes,” explains Dr. L. Scott Levin, Chair of Penn Orthopaedics and Professor of Plastic Surgery. “Once you understand the basics, you can start addressing your condition and getting your life back on track.”